International Research Journal of Oncology

Pleural Ewing’s Sarcoma in Young Women: A Report of Two Cases with Review of the Literature

Mehdi Alem — 2026-06-04

Background: Ewing's sarcoma (ES) arising from the pleura is an exceedingly rare entity, accounting for fewer than 2% of all ES cases. Its rarity and non-specific clinical presentation frequently result in diagnostic delays and therapeutic challenges.

Presentation of Cases: We report two young Moroccan female patients with histologically confirmed pleural ES managed at our institution. The first, a 25-year-old woman, presented with a large locally advanced left pleural ES and received six cycles of VIDE (vincristine, ifosfamide, doxorubicin, etoposide) neoadjuvant chemotherapy, achieving an initial response followed by metastatic progression requiring second-line gemcitabine-docetaxel. The second, an 18-year-old woman, presented with a locally advanced right latero-thoracic soft-tissue ES with pleural involvement and was treated with three cycles of VDC-IE (vincristine, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide alternating with ifosfamide and etoposide), achieving a 73% partial response; surgical resection was declined and she was referred for consolidative radiotherapy.

Discussion: Pleural ES is an aggressive malignancy requiring multidisciplinary management. Immunohistochemical confirmation (CD99 positivity) and cytogenetic analysis are essential for diagnosis. Multimodal treatment including chemotherapy, surgery, and radiotherapy remains the cornerstone of management.

Conclusion: Our cases highlight the rarity of this tumor, the importance of early diagnosis, and the significant therapeutic challenges posed by locally advanced disease in resource-limited settings.

Malignant Vulvar Glomus Tumor Mimicking a Small Round Cell Sarcoma: A Diagnostic and Therapeutic Challenges

Mehdi Alem — 2026-06-05

Background: Malignant glomus tumors are rare neoplasms, and vulvar involvement is exceptionally uncommon, creating significant diagnostic challenges.

Aims: This case study reports an exceptional case of malignant glomus tumor of the vulva presenting with small round cell morphology, and to discuss the diagnostic and therapeutic challenges of this rare entity.

Presentation of Case: A 57-year-old postmenopausal woman presented with a progressively enlarging mass of the right mons pubis extending to the upper right labia majora. Initial histopathology on the excision specimen suggested a poorly differentiated granulosa cell tumour. Following local recurrence, a re-biopsy was performed and an extended immunohistochemical panel was applied: CD99 positivity, diffuse vimentin positivity, focal pan-cytokeratin expression, and low desmin expression were identified, while calretinin, inhibin, synaptophysin, chromogranin, CD56, and CD45 were negative. Molecular studies excluded EWSR1 and SS18 gene rearrangements and FOXL2 mutation. After expert multidisciplinary pathological review integrating morphology, immunoprofile, and molecular exclusion of differential diagnoses, the diagnosis of malignant glomus tumour was established. The patient received six cycles of doxorubicin and ifosfamide-based chemotherapy (MAI protocol, every 21 days), achieving marked radiologic regression including resolution of pulmonary micronodules. Surgical resection of the tumour bed showed no residual viable tumour.

Discussion: Malignant glomus tumors are rare mesenchymal neoplasms representing fewer than 1% of soft tissue sarcomas. Vulvar localization is exceptionally uncommon and may pose significant diagnostic challenges, particularly when histology demonstrates small round cell morphology mimicking other high-grade sarcomas. Accurate diagnosis relies on integrated histopathological, immunohistochemical, and molecular evaluation.

Conclusion: This case underscores the diagnostic complexity of extra-digital glomus tumors and highlights the importance of molecular testing and multidisciplinary management in rare vulvar mesenchymal neoplasms. Sarcoma-based chemotherapy may provide meaningful response in selected cases.

Decade-long Disease Control in Metastatic Epithelioid Angiosarcoma of the Thoracic Spine Following Surgery and Consolidation Radiotherapy: A Case Report and Review of the Literature

Mehdi Alem — 2026-07-07

Background: Epithelioid angiosarcoma (EAS) is a rare, high-grade vascular malignancy with epithelioid morphology and considerable diagnostic overlap with poorly differentiated carcinoma. Primary spinal involvement is exceptionally uncommon, and metastatic disease at presentation is generally associated with short survival in the published literature.

Case Presentation: We report the case of a 32-year-old man who presented with progressive paraparesis secondary to a D9 vertebral tumour causing spinal cord compression. He underwent decompressive laminectomy with posterior instrumentation. Histopathological and immunohistochemical assessment supported a diagnosis of EAS. Staging computed tomography identified four small pulmonary micronodules that were interpreted as metastatic disease. Owing to microscopically incomplete resection, low-volume pulmonary involvement and preserved performance status, the multidisciplinary tumour board recommended consolidation radiotherapy to the operative spinal region at 20 Gy in five fractions, followed by clinical and radiological surveillance without systemic chemotherapy. During more than ten years of follow-up, the residual vertebral lesion and pulmonary micronodules remained radiologically stable, and the patient remained clinically well with no further oncological intervention.

Conclusion: This case documents an unusual long-term stable course in spinal EAS with suspected synchronous pulmonary metastases. It supports the need for careful pathological diagnosis, multidisciplinary assessment and cautious individualisation of management in selected patients with low-volume, clinically silent disease.

Interregional Inequalities by Type of Residence in Ovarian Cancer in Uzbekistan, 2016-2024

D. U. Nabieva — 2026-06-27

Background: Urban-rural differences in ovarian cancer remain insufficiently described in Central Asia, and evidence from Uzbekistan is limited. This study assessed national trends and interregional differences in registered ovarian cancer incidence by type of residence in Uzbekistan during 2016-2024.

Methods: A retrospective population-based descriptive analytical study was conducted using aggregated and anonymised registry data on newly diagnosed ovarian cancer cases among women. Crude incidence rates and age-standardised rates per 100,000 females were calculated for urban and rural residents using the WHO world standard population. Differences in case distribution were examined using Pearson's chi-squared test, and differences in age-standardised rates were assessed using two-tailed z-tests.

Results: Overall, 8,150 newly registered cases were included. Of these, 3,551 cases (43.6%) were registered among urban residents and 4,599 cases (56.4%) among rural residents. Rural cases predominated in eight of the nine study years, with the highest rural shares recorded in 2022 (62.1%) and 2023 (61.9%). Rural age-standardised rates exceeded urban rates in every year, with annual differences ranging from -0.96 to -3.54 rate points per 100,000 females; all differences were statistically significant (minimum p = 0.014). Regional heterogeneity was also observed. The largest rural excesses in age-standardised rates were found in Namangan, Andijan, Kashkadarya, and Jizzakh regions, whereas Fergana region and the Republic of Karakalpakstan showed near parity or non-significant differences in case distribution.

Conclusion: The findings indicate persistent territorial inequalities in the registered burden of ovarian cancer in Uzbekistan and support the strengthening of diagnostic routing, referral systems, and access to gynaecological oncology services for rural women.

Multi-state and Semi-Markov Modelling of Prostate Cancer Disease Trajectories and Mortality Dynamics

Francis Ayiah-Mensah — 2026-07-01

Background: Previous prostate cancer research has often been conducted in clinical or laboratory settings and has relied on traditional survival models that focus on a single disease endpoint. Such approaches do not fully account for intermediate disease states, transition risks, or disease-state occupancy times. This study aimed to model the dynamic progression and survival of prostate cancer using continuous-time Multi-State Markov and Semi-Markov frameworks.

Methods: A retrospective longitudinal study was conducted using clinical data from 300 patients with prostate cancer. The dataset included cancer stage, treatment exposure, tumour characteristics, survival outcomes and follow-up duration. Three disease states or stages were considered: Early-stage disease, Advanced-stage disease and Death. Transition intensities, transition probabilities, mean sojourn times and transition-specific hazard ratios were estimated using Continuous-Time Multi-State and Semi-Markov models.

Results: The largest proportion of patients had Stage II disease (30.00%), followed by Stage III disease (27.67%). The transition intensity from Early-stage disease to Advanced-stage disease (0.1603) was higher than the direct transition from Early-stage disease to Death (0.0724), suggesting a sequential disease progression pattern. Mean sojourn time was shorter in Early-stage disease (4.297 months) than in Advanced-stage disease (93.924 months). At 60 months, 61.90% of patients initially in Early-stage disease had transitioned to Death. Increasing age was associated with mortality among patients with Advanced-stage disease (HR = 1.013), whereas radiation therapy was associated with a lower mortality hazard in this group (HR = 0.721).

Conclusion: The multi-state modelling framework provided a structured representation of prostate cancer progression by accounting for intermediate disease states, transition-specific risks, state occupancy times and treatment-related effects.

Prevalence and Patterns of High-Risk Human Papillomavirus Genotypes, Cervical Lesions, and HPV Vaccination Status among Women Attending Kinondo-Kwetu Hospital, Kwale County, Kenya

Kinyua Felix — 2026-07-03

Background: Persistent infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (hr-HPV) is associated with cervical epithelial abnormalities and may progress to invasive cervical cancer when not detected and managed appropriately. This study determined the prevalence and patterns of hr-HPV genotypes, cervical lesions and HPV vaccination status among women attending cervical cancer screening at Kinondo-Kwetu Hospital, Kwale County, Kenya.

Study Design: Prospective cross-sectional study.

Place and Duration of Study: Kinondo-Kwetu Hospital, Kwale County, Kenya, from November 2024 to November 2025.

Methodology: A total of 261 consenting women aged 18-64 years were recruited. Cervical samples were collected from the transformation zone for hr-HPV DNA testing targeting 13 genotypes: HPV 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59 and 68. Cytological smears were stained using the Papanicolaou method and interpreted according to the Bethesda System. Associations between cytological lesions and hr-HPV results were assessed using the chi-square test, with p <= 0.05 considered statistically significant.

Results: Overall, 91 of 261 women tested positive for hr-HPV, giving a prevalence of 34.9%. Among positive cases, HPV 16 accounted for 16.5% (15/91), HPV 18 for 8.8% (8/91), and other hr-HPV genotypes for 57.1% (52/91). Cytology showed that 237 women (90.8%) had no cervical lesions, while 24 (9.2%) had cervical abnormalities. LSIL and HSIL were the most frequent lesions. Only 10 participants (3.8%) reported HPV vaccination. Agreement between cytology and hr-HPV testing was fair but not statistically significant (kappa = 0.326; p = 0.135).

Conclusion: The findings indicate a substantial burden of hr-HPV infection, low HPV vaccination uptake and a measurable prevalence of cervical lesions among screened women in this setting. The results support the combined use of hr-HPV testing and cervical cytology in screening practice.

Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy for Oligometastatic Cancer: Evidence, Patient Selection, and Clinical Decision-Making

S. Divya — 2026-05-29

Background: Oligometastatic disease represents an intermediate biological state between localized cancer and widely disseminated metastases. Increasing evidence suggests that aggressive local treatment directed at limited metastatic deposits may improve disease control in selected patients. Stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT), which delivers highly conformal ablative radiation doses over a small number of fractions, has emerged as a key modality for metastasis-directed therapy. However, important questions remain regarding optimal patient selection, integration with systemic therapy, and the strength of existing clinical evidence.

Methods: A narrative review of the current literature was performed focusing on prospective trials, randomized studies, and major clinical series evaluating SBRT in oligometastatic disease. Particular emphasis was placed on landmark trials including SABR-COMET, ORIOLE, STOMP, and studies evaluating local consolidative therapy in oligometastatic non-small cell lung cancer. Evidence relating to site-specific outcomes, treatment planning considerations, and emerging systemic therapy combinations was also examined.

Results: Prospective clinical trials have demonstrated encouraging outcomes with SBRT in carefully selected patients with limited metastatic disease. Randomized phase II studies such as SABR-COMET have reported improvements in overall survival and progression-free survival when ablative radiotherapy is delivered to all metastatic sites. In oligometastatic prostate cancer, metastasis-directed therapy has been shown to delay disease progression and postpone initiation of systemic treatment. Similar benefits have been observed in selected patients with oligometastatic non-small cell lung cancer receiving local consolidative therapy after systemic treatment. Nevertheless, the available evidence remains heterogeneous, and most trials are limited by small sample sizes and varying definitions of oligometastatic disease.

Conclusions: SBRT represents an important component of the evolving management of oligometastatic cancer. While early clinical trials support its use in carefully selected patients, optimal patient selection, treatment sequencing, and integration with modern systemic therapies remain active areas of investigation. Ongoing randomized trials and translational research are expected to further clarify the role of SBRT within multimodality treatment strategies for metastatic cancer.

Bridging Plant Sources and Drug Tests Development: Green and Modern Extraction Technologies for Anticancer Phytochemicals

Joy Taiye Babalola — 2026-06-30

Cancer remains a major global health challenge, creating a continuing need for safer, effective and sustainable therapeutic discovery. Plant-derived phytochemicals have contributed substantially to oncology drug development, and many clinically used anticancer agents originate directly or indirectly from natural products. This review examines the relationship between plant sources, bioprospecting strategies, extraction technologies and drug-test development for anticancer phytochemicals. It discusses major classes of anticancer plant metabolites, including alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenolic compounds and lignans, with emphasis on their reported roles in apoptosis induction, proliferation control, oxidative stress modulation, anti-inflammatory activity and interference with cancer-related signalling pathways. Conventional extraction methods, including maceration, Soxhlet extraction, hydrodistillation and solvent extraction, are considered alongside green and advanced technologies such as supercritical fluid extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, pressurised liquid extraction, enzyme-assisted extraction and deep eutectic solvent systems. The review further links extraction quality to bioassay-guided fractionation, chemical characterisation, metabolomic profiling, in vitro anticancer screening, in vivo validation and preclinical development. Overall, the manuscript highlights that no single extraction technology is universally optimal; rather, method selection should depend on compound polarity, stability, yield, reproducibility, environmental acceptability and scalability. Integrating sustainable extraction technologies with standardised pharmacological testing may strengthen the development pathway for plant-derived anticancer therapeutics.

Explainable Adaptive Metaheuristic Optimization for Feature Selection in Breast Cancer Diagnosis: A Review of Transparent and Effective AI Approaches

Mohammed Raihanatu Hamid — 2026-07-14

Breast cancer remains the most frequently diagnosed malignancy among women worldwide, and computer-aided diagnostic systems built on machine learning have become central to early detection efforts. A persistent obstacle to clinical adoption is the tension between predictive accuracy and interpretability: high-dimensional diagnostic datasets, drawn from mammography, ultrasound, histopathology and genomic assays, contain many redundant or irrelevant variables, while the models capable of exploiting them are frequently opaque. Metaheuristic optimisation algorithms, including grey wolf, whale, particle swarm, genetic and hybrid variants, have been widely applied to reduce dimensionality by selecting compact, diagnostically relevant feature subsets, and these algorithms are increasingly combined with explainable artificial intelligence methods such as SHapley Additive exPlanations and Local Interpretable Model-agnostic Explanations to render the resulting models auditable by clinicians. This narrative review synthesises the recent literature on explainable, adaptive metaheuristic feature selection for breast cancer diagnosis. It examines the conceptual foundations of explainable artificial intelligence, surveys the principal metaheuristic algorithms used for feature selection, and critically appraises studies that integrate optimisation with post hoc or intrinsic explanation methods across imaging, clinical and multi-omics data modalities. The review finds that hybrid and adaptive metaheuristic strategies consistently outperform single-algorithm baselines in reducing feature dimensionality while preserving or improving classification accuracy, and that explanation layers built atop these optimised models can identify clinically plausible biomarkers, though evaluation of explanation fidelity remains inconsistent across studies. Persisting gaps include limited external validation, scarce prospective clinical testing, uneven reporting of computational cost, and the absence of standardised metrics for explanation quality. Future work should prioritise adaptive parameter control, multi-objective formulations that explicitly balance accuracy against interpretability, and clinician-centred evaluation of explanations. The review concludes that explainable adaptive metaheuristic feature selection is a promising but still maturing pathway toward trustworthy, deployable artificial intelligence for breast cancer diagnosis.

An Overview on Oral Cancer: Global and Myanmar Perspectives

Myo Khin — 2026-06-04

Oral cancer remains a critical global health challenge, with rising trends, particularly in South and Southeast Asia. In Myanmar, the disease represents a significant public health crisis, consistently ranking among the top ten causes of morbidity and mortality. Epidemiological data shows that oral cancer is the 3^rd leading malignancy in males and 8^th in females. Epidemiological studies identified betel quid chewing, tobacco use, and alcohol consumption as the primary risk factors driving high mortality rates, particularly among men. In Myanmar, the habit of betel quid chewing daily had been reported among 51.4% of adult males and 39% of females. The quid—typically a mixture of areca nut (a Group 1 carcinogen), tobacco, and slaked lime—causes chronic mucosal damage and fibrosis. Because many users keep the quid in their cheek for extended periods, the buccal mucosa is the most frequent subsite for malignancy, accounting for 62% of cases. Squamous cell carcinomas constitute the majority of these malignancies, which are typically aggressive and associated with poor prognosis. Although the oral cavity is easily accessible for screening, most cases in Myanmar are diagnosed at advanced stages due to limited public awareness and late-stage hospital presentations. This is particularly tragic as early detection can increase survival rates from approximately 20% to over 80%. To address this, research in Myanmar has validated modified oral brush biopsy techniques as cost-effective screening tools with reasonable sensitivity (80%) for detecting early epithelial dysplasia. In conclusion, while oral cancer is largely preventable in Myanmar, improving survival rates requires a significant shift in public health education and early detection infrastructure. A multifaceted public health approach focusing on primary prevention to stop habit initiation among adolescents and secondary prevention through regular visual screenings for high-risk adults. Without addressing the social acceptance of betel quid and improving early diagnostic infrastructure, oral cancer will remain a leading preventable cause of death.

Cervical Cancer Control in Cameroon: Examining Health System Constraints and Missed Opportunities for Prevention Through a Systematic Review

Ambroise Ntama — 2026-06-01

Cervical cancer remains one of the most preventable yet still highly lethal malignancies among women in low- and middle-income countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. In Cameroon, despite the availability of effective preventive tools such as human papillomavirus vaccination, screening for precancerous lesions, and curative treatment for early disease, many women continue to present with advanced cervical cancer. This systematic review aimed to synthesize available evidence on the epidemiology, risk factors, clinical presentation, prevention gaps, treatment barriers, and health system constraints affecting cervical cancer control in Cameroon. A structured literature search was conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, African Journals Online, and Google Scholar for publications issued between January 2010 and March 2025. Eligible studies included peer-reviewed articles reporting epidemiological, clinical, virological, therapeutic, or health system data related to cervical cancer in Cameroon, with contextual evidence from comparable sub-Saharan African settings when national data were limited. Thirty-five studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. The evidence showed that cervical cancer in Cameroon is commonly diagnosed among women aged 45–55 years, with most patients presenting at FIGO stage III or IV. Squamous cell carcinoma was the predominant histological subtype, and persistent infection with high-risk HPV, particularly types 16 and 18, remained the principal etiological factor. Major barriers to effective control included low screening coverage, insufficient HPV vaccination uptake, limited public awareness, delayed diagnosis, inadequate pathology and radiotherapy capacity, concentration of oncology services in major urban centers, and high out-of-pocket costs. These constraints contribute to treatment delay, interruption, abandonment, and poor survival outcomes. Strengthening HPV vaccination, implementing organized screening, decentralizing diagnostic and oncology services, improving referral pathways, and reducing financial barriers are essential to reduce preventable cervical cancer mortality in Cameroon.

Diagnostic Accuracy of Radiomics and Deep Learning for Differentiating Pseudoprogression from True Tumour Recurrence in Glioblastoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Isabela Sacco Camara — 2026-06-04

Background: Glioblastoma is an aggressive primary brain tumour with poor survival outcomes, where distinguishing true tumour recurrence from treatment-related pseudoprogression on post-therapy MRI remains a major clinical challenge.

Aims: The primary objective of this study was to evaluate and synthesise the diagnostic accuracy of artificial intelligence models, specifically Radiomics and Deep Learning, in differentiating pseudoprogression from true tumour recurrence in glioblastoma patients following standard treatment.

Study Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic test accuracy.

Methodology: Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we identified 10 original studies involving a total cohort of 1,102 subjects (552 in the experimental recurrence group and 550 in the pseudoprogression control group). Technical performance was assessed across three outcomes: global accuracy (Area Under the Curve), clinical performance (Sensitivity and Specificity), and diagnostic efficiency (Diagnostic Odds Ratio). Quantitative synthesis was performed using a random-effects model based on the DerSimonian-Laird method to account for clinical and technical heterogeneity.

Results: The analysis of global accuracy demonstrated absolute diagnostic stability with a pooled Area Under the Curve (AUC) of 0.86 (95% Confidence Interval: 0.82 to 0.90) and null heterogeneity (I-squared = 0.0%, P = 1.0000). While clinical performance showed significant dispersion (I-squared = 98.0%, P < .0001), diagnostic efficiency was highly significant, yielding a pooled standardised mean difference of 8.18 (95% Confidence Interval: 6.03 to 10.32; P < .0001). Deep Learning models, particularly those incorporating multimodal pre- and postoperative imaging, exhibited superior specificity (up to 94%) compared to traditional radiomics.

Conclusion: Artificial intelligence models provide robust and consistent diagnostic performance in differentiating glioblastoma recurrence from pseudoprogression. The high Diagnostic Odds Ratio supports the integration of these computational tools into clinical workflows to assist in treatment decisions and mitigate unnecessary surgical interventions.

Ki-67 Expression and Its Prognostic Significance in Breast Carcinoma: A Systematic Review

Fritz A. Bucao — 2026-07-13

Background: Breast carcinoma remains the most frequently diagnosed cancer among women worldwide and a major cause of cancer-related mortality. Ki-67, a nuclear proliferation marker expressed during active phases of the cell cycle, has become an important immunohistochemical biomarker used in breast cancer classification, prognostic assessment, and treatment decision-making.

Objective: This systematic review aimed to evaluate the expression and prognostic significance of Ki-67 in breast carcinoma and its association with clinicopathological characteristics, molecular subtypes, and survival outcomes.
Methods: A systematic review was conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, and Google Scholar were searched for studies evaluating Ki-67 expression in breast carcinoma using immunohistochemistry. Eligible studies included observational studies assessing associations between Ki-67 expression and prognostic or clinicopathological parameters. Data extraction and quality assessment were performed independently by two reviewers using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale and Joanna Briggs Institute appraisal tools.

Results: Twenty-four studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. Elevated Ki-67 expression consistently correlated with aggressive clinicopathological characteristics including higher histological grade, larger tumour size, lymph node involvement, HER2 overexpression, hormone receptor negativity, and triple-negative molecular subtype. High Ki-67 expression was also associated with poorer disease-free survival and overall survival. Several studies highlighted the role of Ki-67 in distinguishing luminal A from luminal B breast cancer subtypes and guiding therapeutic stratification. However, variability in scoring systems, cut-off values, and immunohistochemical protocols remained significant challenges.

Conclusion: Ki-67 is a valuable proliferative and prognostic biomarker associated with aggressive tumour behaviour and adverse outcomes in breast carcinoma. Despite challenges related to standardisation and reproducibility, Ki-67 remains clinically useful in prognostic evaluation and treatment planning. Further large-scale studies using standardised methodologies are warranted, including population-specific investigations in settings where local evidence remains limited.

Correlation between Serum Prostate Specific Antigen, Testosterone, and Gleason Score in Men: Implications for Biochemical Grading of Prostate Carcinoma

Friday Emeakpor Ogbetere — 2026-06-24

Background: The Gleason grading system is the gold standard for assessing prostate cancer aggressiveness. Whether serum Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) and testosterone can predict histological grade remains debated, with limited data from West African populations.

Aim: The study aims to determine the correlation between serum PSA and Gleason score, and between serum testosterone and Gleason score, in men with histologically confirmed prostate carcinoma.

Methods: This study analysed data from 45 Nigerian men with histologically confirmed prostate adenocarcinoma enrolled consecutively at a tertiary hospital over two years. Pearson's correlation coefficient examined associations between serum PSA (ng/mL), serum testosterone (nmol/L), and Gleason score. Subgroup analyses explored patterns across Gleason grade groups.

Results: Among the 45 men with histologically confirmed prostate carcinoma, serum PSA showed a weak, non-significant negative correlation with Gleason score (r = -0.283; p = 0.059). The coefficient of determination (r² = 0.080) confirms that PSA explained only 8% of histological grade variability. Serum testosterone performed even more poorly (r = -0.088; p = 0.566; r² = 0.008), accounting for less than 1% of Gleason score variance. Subgroup analysis across grade groups revealed no consistent directional pattern for either biomarker. Neither PSA nor testosterone predicted histological tumour grade reliably in this West African cohort.

Conclusion: Serum PSA and testosterone do not reliably predict Gleason score in men with prostate carcinoma. Histopathological evaluation remains indispensable for tumour grading. These findings highlight the limitations of circulating biomarkers in assessing tumour differentiation and underscore the importance of biopsy-based grading in African clinical settings.